Types of Misinformation, Disinformation, and Mal-information

Scapegoating

Scapegoating is the act of wrongly blaming someone or a group of people for something bad that has happened.

Scapegoating is often used in disinformation and mal-information. It places the blame for problems and harmful events on a person or a group. Singling out people or groups as scapegoats is often done intentionally to stir up mistrust or hate. It can lead to the targeting or abuse of those being scapegoated.

The following is an example of scapegoating: Two schools are combined into a single school. One of the original schools used to always win the state championship in track and field, but the year after the schools are combined the newly consolidated school loses the championship. The students from the school that used to win blame the students from the other school for the loss, even though their athletes performed equally well.

If individuals or groups are being blamed for an issue, ask yourself: Are they actually responsible? Is the problem too complex to be pinned on one person/group? If so, the chances are they are being scapegoated. If they are responsible, how can we avoid falsely blaming people who are perceived as similar to them or members of the same group as them?

Ad Hominem Attack

This is a manipulation tactic that attacks someone in a way that has nothing to do with what is being discussed. Rather than engaging with what someone is saying and the facts of their argument, the focus is on attacking their character, motive, and authority in order to discredit them. This approach undermines someone, and shifts attention away from the substance of their argument. It can be used as a distraction tactic.

For example, if Spencer wants to discredit Ali’s ideas, he might bring up something from Ali’s past that has nothing to do with their argument but that Spencer thinks shows that Ali is a bad person. Then, Spencer could say that Ali should be ignored or discredited instead of arguing with Ali’s ideas.

Ad hominem attacks are used in a variety of ways, including to smear public figures, to discredit the research of scientists, and to shut down discussion. The term ad hominem comes from Latin, and means “against the person.”

Emotive Language

Emotive language, also known as emotional language, can trigger an emotional response in the person who reads or hears it. Some content creators deliberately use words that provoke people’s emotions to persuade them to adopt certain viewpoints. Examples of emotive language include words like “heartwarming” or “horrific” that are associated with strong feelings.

Emotive language can be found in propaganda, advertising, political speeches, and any other content that seeks to change people’s opinions or behavior.

If you find your emotions being provoked by content you have engaged with, stop and ask yourself: How is this content triggering my emotions? What is the content trying to make me feel and why? What are the motives of the content creator? Asking these questions can help you avoid being manipulated.

False Dichotomy

A false dichotomy is a manipulation tool that makes people think that they only have two choices to choose from, when in reality there are far more options.

It is often used to oversimplify complex issues and make people think they have to choose between two mutually exclusive options: either this or that. This can cause people to make rushed decisions without considering the whole situation, what alternatives are available, and whether multiple things might be true. This type of thinking is very black-and-white, and ignores the fact that many issues  cannot be so easily defined or divided.

Examples of false dichotomies are that you either love cats or dogs, you are either with someone or against them, or that if you were patriotic, you wouldn’t criticise your country.

False dichotomies show a failure of reasoning.

Circular Reporting

Circular reporting is the name given to a situation when false information appears to come from multiple independent sources but in reality only comes from one source. It is often how misinformation and disinformation spread.

It occurs when false information is shared by multiple outlets that all reference each other as the original source of the information. Circular reporting can also happen when multiple outlets share the same false piece of information from one untrustworthy source. For example, in 2022, a blog posted a satirical article claiming that Disney World was lowering its drinking age to 18. The blog intentionally included the false information to be funny. However, the claim was repeated by a TikTok video and then reported on in news articles.

With circular reporting, false information becomes part of the information chain and appears to be reliable because it is reported on by multiple outlets. Once this has happened, it becomes very difficult to fact-check as it is not clear who/what is the original source.

Circular reporting can happen accidentally, through lazy research and journalism, but it is also an approach used to intentionally spread false content. Circular reporting can make it hard to distinguish what is true from what is not. Reputable news and information outlets are less likely to spread false information via circular reporting.

Trolls and Bots

Trolls and bots spread disinformation and mal-information online.

Trolls are real people who attack individuals, organizations, and ideas in online communities, seeking to provoke and upset people to push their own agenda. They often use anonymous accounts or create fake personalities, and use emotive language and insults. They aim to get attention, discredit people, prevent constructive debate, and/or make money. Engaging with trolls can amplify their content, so that it reaches more people.

Bots are automated software programs that perform tasks online. On social media, bots are fake accounts that interact with other users as if they were human, engaging in discussions and liking or spreading content. Not all bots have a negative impact, but some are used to intentionally manipulate online conversations, spreading aggressive and divisive ideas. They can create echo chambers (where you see only the same information and opinions) and make it look like controversial views have more support than they do. They post frequently, often resharing content, and follow a large number of accounts. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, online bots posted false information about the spread of the virus and information that tapped into people’s fears.

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